The First Recorded Treaty in History

In the annals of ancient diplomacy and warfare, few events stand as prominently as the Battle of Kadesh and the treaty that followed it. Fought circa 1274 B.C., this monumental confrontation between two great Bronze Age powers, Egypt under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II, is widely regarded not only for its military scale but also for giving rise to the earliest surviving peace treaty in recorded history.

The city of Kadesh, located near the Orontes River in what is now modern-day Syria, was of strategic importance to both empires, each vying for influence over the Levant. Ramesses II, a dynamic and ambitious pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty, led his army northward in a campaign designed to reassert Egyptian dominance in the region. Muwatalli II, the Hittite king, anticipated this move and gathered a formidable force to challenge the Egyptian advance.

What followed was one of the largest chariot battles the world has ever known, involving thousands of warriors and an estimated five to six thousand chariots. Though the Egyptians claimed a tactical victory, largely due to Ramesses’ dramatic accounts inscribed upon temple walls – the reality was far more ambiguous. The battle ended without clear domination by either side, and the city of Kadesh remained under Hittite control.

Both the Egyptians and the Hittites engaged in extensive propaganda following the Battle of Kadesh, each proclaiming a decisive victory despite the battle’s inconclusive outcome. In Egypt, Ramesses II immortalised his supposed triumph through grand reliefs and inscriptions on temple walls, depicting himself as a valiant, almost divine warrior singlehandedly turning the tide of battle. These narratives, often exaggerated and stylised, served to reinforce his image as a heroic ruler favoured by the gods.

The Hittites, too, composed records asserting their own success, portraying the encounter as a strategic containment of Egyptian aggression. In truth, the engagement ended in stalemate, with neither side achieving clear dominance. Recognising the limitations of prolonged warfare and the mutual threat posed by other rising powers, both empires ultimately chose diplomacy over continued conflict, culminating in the historic peace accord now known as the Treaty of Kadesh.

Treaty of Kadesh

In the aftermath, both empires came to recognise the futility of prolonged conflict. Years later, around 1259 B.C., a remarkable act of diplomacy unfolded: Ramesses II and Hattusili III (Muwatalli’s successor) formalised a treaty that would become a milestone in the history of international relations.

This Treaty of Kadesh, as it is now known, was unprecedented in both content and structure. It stipulated terms of non-aggression, mutual defence against external threats, and the return of political fugitives. Most notably, it established a formal recognition of each other’s sovereignty and laid the foundation for a lasting peace between two formidable civilisations.

What makes this accord particularly significant is the preservation of its text in both Egyptian and Hittite forms. The Egyptian version, inscribed in hieroglyphs on the walls of temples such as Karnak and the Ramesseum, presents the treaty in a manner typical of Egyptian royal propaganda. Conversely, the Hittite version, composed in Akkadian cuneiform on clay tablets discovered at the Hittite capital of Hattusa, reflects a more conventional diplomatic tone. Despite minor discrepancies in wording, the substance remains consistent, a testament to the mutual respect achieved through negotiation.

Today, the Treaty of Kadesh endures not merely as a relic of antiquity, but as a symbol of the human capacity for dialogue over destruction. It is perhaps fitting that a copy of this ancient accord resides at the headquarters of the United Nations in New York, serving as a reminder of diplomacy’s enduring power across the ages.

Muwatalli II & the Hittite Empire

Muwatalli II, king of the Hittite Empire during the late 13th century B.C., was a formidable and strategic ruler who sought to consolidate and expand Hittite power across northern Syria. His decision to engage in conflict with Egypt stemmed from a long-standing rivalry over control of the Levant, a region rich in resources and trade routes, and crucial to the balance of power in the ancient Near East.

Egypt, under Ramesses II, was pushing northward to reclaim influence over vassal states that had begun to shift their allegiance to the Hittites. Muwatalli responded by mustering a large and diverse coalition of allied forces, determined to defend Hittite interests and prevent Egyptian encroachment. The resulting clash at Kadesh was not merely a military engagement, but a decisive contest for regional supremacy, with Muwatalli intent on halting Egypt’s advance and securing Hittite dominance in the contested borderlands.

Muwatalli II’s reign spanned from approximately from 1295 to 1272 B.C. Though his rule lasted around 23 years, its significance was profound, marking one of the empire’s most defining military confrontations. The Hittite Empire itself had a long and complex history, beginning around 1650 B.C. during its Old Kingdom period.

The Hittite Empire reached its zenith during the New Kingdom, from c. 1400 B.C., which included the reign of Muwatalli and his successors. Following his death, internal disputes over succession, combined with external pressures, gradually weakened the empire. Though it endured for roughly 150 years after his reign, the Hittite Empire ultimately collapsed around 1178 B.C., likely due to a combination of internal unrest, economic decline, and invasions by foreign groups such as the Sea Peoples. In total, the Hittite civilisation flourished for nearly five centuries, leaving behind a legacy of sophisticated diplomacy, law, and military organisation.