Great Hymn to the Aten

The Great Hymn to Aten is one of the most famous texts from Akhenaten’s reign. It describes Aten as the sole creator, sustainer of life, and a universal omnipresent deity, making it one of the earliest religious texts that resemble later monotheistic traditions.

The hymn, inscribed in Akhenaten’s tomb at Tel el-Amarna, praises Aten as the sole god who gives life to all beings and unlike traditional Egyptian gods, Aten was not depicted in hybrid human/animal forms but rather as the sun disc itself, in the sky with the sun rays shining down with human hands offering ankhs (the Egyptian symbol for life) to the living, thus reinforcing an abstract concept of divinity.

“O sole god beside whom there is none!
You create the earth according to your desire, you alone!”

“You are far, yet your rays are upon the earth;
You are in the sky, yet your footsteps are unseen.”

Monotheism in the Ancient World

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism, one of the world’s oldest known monotheistic religions, was founded by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in Ancient Persia, around the 6th century B.C.. Central to Zoroastrian belief is the worship of Ahura Mazda, the supreme god who embodies wisdom, goodness, and light. Like Atenism, Zoroastrianism advocates the worship of a single, all-powerful deity and emphasizes the moral responsibility of humanity in maintaining order and harmony in the world. Both religions stress the importance of light as a symbol of divine presence, with the sun or its radiant energy playing a significant role in the worship practices.

While there are notable similarities between Zoroastrianism and Atenism, such as the focus on monotheism and the veneration of light, the theological context of each differs. Atenism, as promoted by Akhenaten, was primarily a royal cult centered on the pharaoh’s relationship with Aten, with limited accessibility to the wider population. Zoroastrianism, on the other hand, evolved into a religious system that involved a broader community, guiding personal morality and societal order. Additionally, Zoroastrianism’s dualistic cosmology, which contrasts the forces of good (Ahura Mazda) and evil (Angra Mainyu), is fundamentally different from the more impersonal, singular nature of the Aten in Akhenaten’s religious reforms. Despite these differences, both religions contributed to the development of monotheistic thought in the ancient world. That said, Atenism predates Zoroastrianism by several centuries, with a difference of around 500 to 1,000 years, depending on the dating of Zoroaster’s life. Therefore, Atenism was established at least 500 years before Zoroastrianism, marking it as one of or the earliest known forms of monotheistic worship.

Abrahamic Faiths

Some scholars tend to speculate about possible connections between Atenism and the Abrahamic faiths also, however, there are quite fundamental differences in theology and practice.

Atenism was a radical departure from traditional Egyptian religious beliefs, which had long been characterized by a vast pantheon of gods. Contrary to traditional Egyptian religion, which involved a complex priesthood and elaborate temple rituals, Atenism centralized worship around the pharaoh himself. Akhenaten presented himself as the only intermediary between Aten and the people, eliminating the powerful priesthood of Amun and closing temples dedicated to other gods. This restructuring was not only religious but also political, as it helped Akhenaten consolidate power by reducing the influence of the temple elites.

Early Israelites, like the Egyptians, worshipped a variety of gods and deities. The Hebrew Bible itself acknowledges the existence of the worship of other gods and recounts instances where the Israelites turned back to these deities, especially during times of political or social turmoil. Among the gods they may have worshipped were Canaanite deities such as Baal, Asherah, and El, who were believed to control various aspects of nature and life.

The transition to monotheism in ancient Israel is traditionally attributed to the covenantal relationship established between the Israelites and Yahweh, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Over time, this belief in a single, all-powerful God gradually became central to Hebrew identity, marking a significant departure from the polytheistic practices of their earlier history.

Both Atenism and the Abrahamic faiths emphasize one supreme deity, a concept that was rare in the ancient world. However, their views on divine-human relationships, morality, and worship structure are significantly distinct. While Judaism was deeply rooted in a covenant between God and His people, emphasizing laws, ethics, and justice, Aten was worshipped primarily through the state and the pharaoh.

It is written that Judaism was founded on a covenant between God and His people, focusing on laws, ethics, and justice, and was accessible to the entire Israelite community through prophets such as Moses. In contrast, Aten was worshipped primarily through the state and the pharaoh, with only the royal family having a direct connection to the deity. Therefore, we can presume that Atenism was likely more exclusive, with worship possibly being enforced, especially following the destruction of the Amun priesthood and the relocation of the capital to Akhetaten (Tel el-Amarna). Contrary to this, the Hebrews form of monothiestic worship evolved over centuries, adopted by ordinary people as part of their national identity, and shaped by influential leaders like the previously mentioned Moses, David, and the prophets.

Based upon historical evidence and archaeological findings, as well as geographical connections, some scholars have proposed that the Israelites, who lived in or near Egypt during the Late Bronze Age, might have been exposed to Akhenaten’s religious reforms, influencing their later development of monotheism. However, there is no direct evidence linking Atenism to the development of Hebrew beliefs. Early Yahwism likely emerged from Canaanite traditions, with the concept of Jewish monotheism developing gradually, rather than through a sudden religious decree like Atenism. Based upon historical evidence it is also more likely the Hebrew faith was possibly influenced more by Zoroastrianism after the Babylonian Exile than Egyptian tradition.

“Plundered is the Canaan with every evil;
Carried off is Asqaluni;
Seized upon is Gezer;
Yanoam is made non-existent;
Israel is laid waste—its seed is no more;
Kharru has become a widow because of Egypt.
All lands together are pacified.
Everyone who was restless has been bound.”
Merneptah Stele, the earliest mention of the Israelites, c. 1208 B.C.

That said, the resemblance between the Hymn to the Aten and Pslam 104 of the Bible cannot be shrugged off so easily. The concept and poetic tribute to God is remarkably similar;

The Hymn to the Aten and Psalm 104 share striking similarities in their depiction of God’s creation and the natural world. Both texts celebrate the divine as the source of life and the sustainer of all creation. In the Hymn to the Aten, the Aten is praised for creating and nourishing the world, bringing light and life to everything. Similarly, Psalm 104 describes God as the creator of the earth, the heavens, and all living things, highlighting His role in providing for the needs of creation. Both emphasize the interconnectedness of nature and the divine, portraying God as a powerful, nurturing force who brings order, beauty, and balance to the world. The poetic language in both works evokes awe and reverence for the divine presence in nature, illustrating a shared appreciation for the life-giving power of God.

“In face of this remarkable similarity one can hardly doubt that there is a direct connection between the two compositions; and it becomes necessary to ask whether both Akhnaton’s hymn and this Hebrew psalm were derived from a common Syrian source, or whether Psalm CIV. is derived from this Pharaoh’s original poem. Both views are admissible.” – Arthur Weigall, British Egyptologist (1880-1934)

In his 1958 book Reflections on the Psalms, C.S. Lewis draws a fascinating comparison between Akhenaten’s Hymn to the Aten and the Psalms of the Judaeo-Christian canon. Lewis acknowledges the similarities in the way both express awe and reverence for the divine as the creator of the universe. However, he notes key differences in the nature of the relationship between the divine and humanity.

While the Hymn to the Aten reflects a somewhat distant, impersonal deity worshipped primarily by the pharaoh, the Psalms reveal a more intimate and personal God who engages directly with His people, offering care, guidance, and compassion. Lewis explores how the Psalms’ portrayal of God is more relational and responsive, whereas Akhenaten’s hymn centres on the transcendence of the Aten, emphasizing the divine’s grandeur without the same depth of personal connection.

Naturally, not all scholars agree on the direct influence between the Hymn to the Aten and the Psalm, with Israeli Egyptologist Miriam Lichtheim (1914-2004) stating that, the similarities are “more likely to be the result of the generic similarity between Egyptian hymns and biblical psalms. A specific literary interdependence is not probable.” However, Egyptologists, such as Jan Assmann and Donald Redford, continue to argue for Egyptian influence on both the Amarna correspondence (especially in EA 147) and on Psalm 104.

Whether direct influence from the Hymn inspired the writings of the Psalm, or whether it was in fact divine intervention inspiring various nations to write words to their maker, until further archaeological findings present themselves, it is up to the reader to decide what feels right to them.

The Hymn to the Aten is primarily preserved in inscriptions found at the ruins of Akhenaten’s capital city, Akhetaten (modern-day Tel el-Amarna).

The most famous version of the hymn is found in the Great Aten Temple at Tel el-Amarna, where it was inscribed on various walls and monuments. The text has also been preserved through papyri and other materials discovered in the region. Scholars and Egyptologists have translated the hymn from the original Egyptian language (in Middle Egyptian script) into various modern languages.

The Hymn to the Aten, translated by Miriam Lichtheim (1914-2004):

When you set in western lightland,
Earth is in darkness as if in death;
One sleeps in chambers, heads covered,
One eye does not see another,
Were they robbed of their goods,
That are under their heads,
People would not remark it,
Every lion comes from its den,
All the serpents bite;
Darkness hovers, earth is silent,
As their maker rests in lightland.
Earth brightens when you dawn in lightland,
When you shine as Aten of daytime;
As you cast your rays,
The Two Lands are in festivity.
Awake they stand on their feet,
You have roused them;
Bodies cleansed, clothed,
Their arms adore your appearance.
The entire land sets out to work,
All beasts browse on their herbs;
Trees, herbs are sprouting,
Birds fly from their nests,
Their wings greeting your ka,
All flocks frisk on their feet,
All that fly up and alight,
They live when you dawn for them.
Ships fare north, fare south as well,
Roads lie open when you rise;
The fish in the river dart before you,
Your rays are in the midst of the sea.
Who makes seed grow in women,
Who creates people from sperm;
Who feeds the son in his mother’s womb,
Who soothes him to still his tears.
Nurse in the womb,
Giver of breath,
To nourish all that he made,
When he comes from the womb to breathe,
On the day of his birth,
You open wide his mouth,
You supply his needs.
When the chick in the egg speaks in the shell,
You give him breath within to sustain him;
When you have made him complete,
To break out from the egg,
He comes out from the egg,
To announce his completion,
Walking on his legs he comes from it.

The Hymn to the Aten, translated by John A. Wilson (1889-1976):

Praise of Re Har-akhti, Rejoicing on the Horizon, in His Name as Shu Who Is in the Aton-disc, living forever and ever; the living great Aton who is in jubilee, lord of all that the Aton encircles, lord of heaven, lord of earth, lord of the House of Aton in Akhet-Aton; (and praise of) the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, who lives on truth, the Lord of the Two Lands: Nefer-kheperu-Re Wa-en-Re; the Son of Re, who lives on truth, the Lord of Diadems: Akh-en-Aton, long in his lifetime; (and praise of) the Chief Wife of the King, his beloved, the Lady of the Two Lands: Nefer-neferu-Aton Nefert-iti, living, healthy, and youthful forever and ever; (by) the Fan-Bearer on the Right Hand of the King … Eye.

He says:

Thou appearest beautifully on the horizon of heaven,
Thou living Aton, the beginning of life!
When thou art risen on the eastern horizon,
Thou hast filled every land with thy beauty.
Thou art gracious, great, glistening, and high over every land;
Thy rays encompass the lands to the limit of all that thou hast made:
As thou art Re, thou reachest to the end of them;
(Thou) subduest them (for) thy beloved son.
Though thou art far away, thy rays are on earth;
Though thou art in their faces, no one knows thy going.

When thou settest in the western horizon,
The land is in darkness, in the manner of death.
They sleep in a room, with heads wrapped up,
Nor sees one eye the other.
All their goods which are under their heads might be stolen,
(But) they would not perceive (it).
Every lion is come forth from his den;
All creeping things, they sting.
Darkness is a shroud, and the earth is in stillness,
For he who made them rests in his horizon.

At daybreak, when thou arisest on the horizon,
When thou shinest as the Aton by day,
Thou drivest away the darkness and givest thy rays.
The Two Lands are in festivity every day,
Awake and standing upon (their) feet,
For thou hast raised them up.
Washing their bodies, taking (their) clothing,
Their arms are (raised) in praise at thy appearance.
All the world, they do their work.

All beasts are content with their pasturage;
Trees and plants are flourishing.
The birds which fly from their nests,
Their wings are (stretched out) in praise to thy ka.
All beasts spring upon (their) feeet.
Whatever flies and alights,
They live when thou hast risen (for) them.
The ships are sailing north and south as well,
For every way is open at thy appearance.
The fish in the river dart before thy face;
Thy rays are in the midst of the great green sea.

Creator of seed in women,
Thou who makest fluid into man,
Who maintainest the son in the womb of his mother,
Who soothest him with that which stills his weeping,
Thou nurse (even) in the womb,
Who givest breath to sustain all that he has made!
When he descends from the womb to breathe
On the day when he is born,
Thou openest his mouth completely,
Thou suppliest his necessities.
When the chick in the egg speaks within the shell,
Thou givest him breath within it to maintain him.
When thou hast made him his fulfillment within the egg, to break it,
He comes forth from the egg to speak at his completed (time);
He walks upon his legs when he comes forth from it.

How manifold it is, what thou hast made!
They are hidden from the face (of man).
O sole god, like whom there is no other!
Thou didst create the world according to thy desire,
Whilst thou wert alone: All men, cattle, and wild beasts,
Whatever is on earth, going upon (its) feet,
And what is on high, flying with its wings.

The countries of Syria and Nubia, the land of Egypt,
Thou settest every man in his place,
Thou suppliest their necessities:
Everyone has his food, and his time of life is reckoned.
Their tongues are separate in speech,
And their natures as well;
Their skins are distinguished,
As thou distinguishest the foreign peoples.
Thou makest a Nile in the underworld,
Thou bringest forth as thou desirest
To maintain the people (of Egypt)
According as thou madest them for thyself,
The lord of all of them, wearying (himself) with them,
The lord of every land, rising for them,
The Aton of the day, great of majesty.

All distant foreign countries, thou makest their life (also),
For thou hast set a Nile in heaven,
That it may descend for them and make waves upon the mountains,
Like the great green sea,
To water their fields in their towns.
How effective they are, thy plans, O lord of eternity!
The Nile in heaven, it is for the foreign peoples
And for the beasts of every desert that go upon (their) feet;
(While the true) Nile comes from the underworld for Egypt.

Thy rays suckle every meadow.
When thou risest, they live, they grow for thee.
Thou makest the seasons in order to rear all that thou hast made,
The winter to cool them,
And the heat that they may taste thee.
Thou hast made the distant sky in order to rise therein,
In order to see all that thou dost make.
Whilst thou wert alone,
Rising in thy form as the living Aton,
Appearing, shining, withdrawing or aproaching,
Thou madest millions of forms of thyself alone.
Cities, towns, fields, road, and river —
Every eye beholds thee over against them,
For thou art the Aton of the day over the earth….

Thou are in my heart,
And there is no other that knows thee
Save thy son Nefer-kheperu-Re Wa-en-Re,
For thou hast made him well-versed in thy plans and in thy strength.

The world came into being by thy hand,
According as thou hast made them.
When thou hast risen they live,
When thou settest they die.
Thou art lifetime thy own self,
For one lives (only) through thee.
Eyes are (fixed) on beauty until thou settest.
All work is laid aside when thou settest in the west.
(But) when (thou) risest (again),
[Everything is] made to flourish for the king,…
Since thou didst found the earth
And raise them up for thy son,
Who came forth from thy body: the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, … Ak-en-Aton, … and the Chief Wife of the King … Nefert-iti, living and youthful forever and ever.