Fishing

The Nile was far more than a ribbon of water through Egypt’s deserts: it was a living larder, brimming with silvered scales and darting fins. From its depths and from the quiet marshes at its edges, fish provided nourishment, inspiration, and mystery to the Egyptians for thousands of years. To the farmer in his reed hut, they were a ready meal, netted, speared, or trapped for the table.

Fishing in Ancient Egypt was thus both the most ordinary of labours and the most extraordinary of symbols. It was a boy casting his net in the shallows, a nobleman spearing in the papyrus thickets, a tilapia swimming beside the sun god’s barque. To follow the fish is to follow Egypt itself: a civilisation fed, sustained, and inspired by the eternal bounty of the river.

Types of Fish

The Nile in Pharaonic times was one of the richest freshwater ecosystems in the world, and the Egyptians knew its fish well, both for daily diet and symbolic meaning. Ancient tomb scenes, texts, and archaeological remains allow us to reconstruct the main species.

• Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

One of the most frequently shown fish in tomb art, often associated with rebirth and regeneration because of its mouth-brooding habits. Still eaten widely in Egypt today. The Tilapia fish, is a little known Ancient Egyptian symbol of fertility. The concept of rebirth and regeneration were of extremely high importance to the spiritual structure of the Egyptian society, and the Tilapia fish specifically represented such ideals due to the way the fish carries its eggs within its mouth. The witnessing of a creature of the Nile spitting out its eggs, harps back to the Ancient Egyptian creation myth. Most notably, the god Atum, spitting the god Shu and goddess Tefnut into creation. It is easy to see why the Tilapia became a creature of significant symbology to the Egyptians.

Painted Clay Tilapia Fish

In recent years, modern technology allowed the Brooklyn Museum (where this clay fish now resides) to see inside this Ancient Egyptian fish, and within the belly are numerous pellets of clay, representing the eggs. It is easy to think this fish must have been some kind of rattle toy for a child, however, Egyptologists believe this fish was in fact used as a musical instrument, possibly during festivals or fertility rituals.

• Nile Catfish (Clarias gariepinus, Bagrus bajad) & Electric Catfish (Malapterurus electricus)

The Catfish played a big role in daily life and the Nile ecosystem. Evidence suggests the catfish Ancient Egyptians favoured in terms of food were the Clarias gariepinus (African sharptooth catfish) and Bagrus bajad (bayad catfish). Both are still common in the Nile today. These are large, powerful freshwater fish, easily recognised by their long barbels (“whiskers”). They can be seen in Old Kingdom tomb art, such as the Mastaba of Ti.

Unlike many fish, Clarias catfish can gulp air and survive out of water for hours, even wriggling across damp ground. This meant they flourished in shallow pools and floodwaters when other fish died off. This would make them perfect for the marshes of Egypt and the annual floodings of the Nile. They thrived in flood lakes, canals, and mud, places where the Egyptians could easily harvest them. They were commonly caught with nets, wicker traps, or spears in shallow waters.

Gold Catfish Pendant, c. 1878-1749 B.C.

Catfish were a staple for the general population. Workers’ villages (like Deir el-Medina and the pyramid towns) have yielded heaps of catfish bones discovered in the famous “rubbish” pits. They were eaten fresh, but also dried, salted, or smoked. Herodotus gives us one of the clearest outsider accounts of how the Egyptians prepared fish. This comes from his Histories, written in the 5th century B.C. (around 440 B.C.), during his travels through Egypt under the Persian Achaemenid rule (27th Dynasty). In Histories Book II, Chapter 77, he describes;

“Of their fish, some they dry in the sun and then eat them without cooking, others they eat cured in brine. Of the birds, they eat them roasted or boiled, except such as are set apart as sacred. Everything else which they have belonging to the class of birds or fishes, except such as have been set apart by them as sacred, they eat roasted or boiled.”
Histories Book II, Chapter 77

All in all, catfish were a cheap, abundant protein source for the ordinary Egyptians’ “bread-and-fish” diet and unlike tilapia (linked with rebirth) or the oxyrhynchus fish (sacred in a specific nome), catfish had little strong religious association. They appear in art more as part of the “realistic abundance” of the Nile rather than as sacred creatures. However, because of their mud-loving habits and fearsome appearance, catfish could sometimes be linked with the Nile’s chaotic side, lurking in the depths, aggressive when caught.

On the other hand, the Electric Catfish was one to avoid in terms of food. Called “electric” because the fish can generate real electric shocks (up to 350 volts) using special organs in its body, its shock was and is strong enough to stun prey, and it would have been felt immediately if anyone handled or stepped on it in shallow water.

The electric catfish is identifiable in some Old Kingdom reliefs and later art because Egyptians were precise naturalists in their fish carvings. Its blunt head and lack of dorsal fin make it distinctive. In Egyptian texts, it is thought to have been called djādjat (however, this varies regarding different transliterations). Because of its stunning power, it was seen as dangerous and potentially magical. And like most aspects of nature, especially living creatures, the ability of the Electric Catfish to shock has led some modern scholars to propose that perhaps the Egyptians associated it with protection, seeing the Electric Catfish as a creature whose shocking ability could ward off evil. Others note that because it lived in the Nile depths, it symbolised hidden forces of the river, that dark undercurrent of chaos and the unknown inspiring mystical thought.

As previously mentioned, evidence suggests the electric catfish was avoided as food, much like certain other Nile creatures linked with divine or chaotic forces (similar to taboos around the oxyrhynchus fish). Herodotus doesn’t mention it specifically, but the silence of the Electric Catifhs appearing in food remnants (aka few Electric Catfish bones at settlement sites) supports the idea of avoidance.

Monaco Nature Encyclopedia: Electric Catfish

In Greek and Roman medical writings (e.g. Scribonius Largus, Galen), the electric catfish was noted for its numbing shock and sometimes recommended for therapeutic use (to treat gout or headaches). This shows its properties were famous far beyond Egypt.

• Nile Perch (Lates niloticus)

A powerful predatory fish, living in the deeper channels of the Nile, the Nile Perch’s large size and distinctive blunt head make it recognisable in Egyptian tomb art and reliefs. Whereas today the perch is more associated with Lake Victoria, in antiquity it was common along the Nile Valley, including Faiyum and the Delta lakes. The Nile perch (Lates niloticus) was one of the most striking fish of the Nile and did not go unnoticed by the Ancient Egyptians. Among the largest freshwater fish in the world, sometimes reaching 2 m (6.5 ft) in length and weighing over 150 kg, the Nile perch straddled two worlds, at one end it was a giant, prized catch for fishing communities, but at the same time, was deemed by others as a sacred being, untouchable and revered.

Its sheer size meant it could feed many people at once. Archaeological finds of Nile perch bones occur in settlement sites all across Egypt, showing it was consumed often. Yet in Esna, the perch was a sacred species, associated with the goddess Neith (and sometimes Hathor). Esna (ancient Latopolis, 4th Upper Egyptian Nome), was the main cult centre of the Nile perch, which led to the Greeks even renaming the city Latopolis after the fish (Lates in Greek). Outside Esna, in most of Egypt, the Nile perch was not taboo. Inscriptions and temple reliefs confirm that the fish was not simply a curiosity of the river, but a vessel of divine qualities, woven firmly into the city’s theology.

Esna, capital of Egypt’s 4th Upper Egyptian Nome, rose to particular religious prominence in the Late Period and Greco-Roman eras. Its chief goddess was Neith, a primeval deity of creation, warfare, and weaving, often entwined with the watery chaos from which life was born. In Esna, her divine presence was embodied in the unlikely form of the Nile perch (Lates niloticus), a deep-dwelling predator of the river, vast and powerful, well suited to symbolise hidden strength and the mysteries of the Nile’s depths.

Egypt’s nomes often adopted an animal emblem such as the crocodile at Crocodilopolis, the ibis at Hermopolis, and the oxyrhynchus fish at Oxyrhynchus. Esna’s choice of the mighty perch gave it a distinct spiritual identity. Some traditions, preserved by Plutarch in On Isis and Osiris, told that fish devoured parts of Osiris after his death. In some regions these creatures were cursed, yet at Esna the perch seems to have been recast not as a desecrator, but as a guardian, linked with rebirth and protection.

By elevating the perch to sacred status, Esna carved a place for itself within Egypt’s religious landscape. Greek and Roman visitors were so struck by this local devotion that they renamed the town Latopolis, “City of the Lates”.

The Egyptian Museum in Cairo preserves a remarkable collection of mummified Nile perch (Lates niloticus), many of which were recovered from the site of Esna, ancient Latopolis, during excavations in the early twentieth century. In 1902, archaeologists unearthed literally thousands of such specimens, ranging from large adult fish to bundles of small juveniles and even packets of nothing more than scales. These were votive offerings connected with the local cult of the goddess Neith, for whom the perch was a sacred manifestation.

The process of preservation followed the familiar methods of animal mummification. The bodies were dried in natron to remove moisture, then carefully wrapped in linen or in strips of papyrus fibre, and sometimes coated with resin to bind and protect the wrappings. The Cairo collection includes several impressive examples: one, catalogued as CG 29588, measures an extraordinary 145 centimetres in length, whilst others are more modest in scale, ranging from around 36 to 40 centimetres. The variety suggests that worshippers dedicated whatever they could afford, from single large fish to mass bundles of smaller specimens.

These offerings speak to the particular reverence in which the perch was held at Esna. In the broader Nile Valley the fish could be eaten, but at Latopolis it was forbidden as food, being instead an emblem of divine power and mystery. By dedicating these mummies, devotees sought favour from the goddess Neith, whose association with creation and the primordial waters made the deep-dwelling perch an apt symbol. Today, the rows of wrapped fish in the Cairo Museum remind us that in Ancient Egypt, even a creature of the river might be elevated from the commonplace to the sacred, bridging the world of daily sustenance and the realm of the divine.

• Mullet (Mugilidae)

The mullet was one of the more important fish of Ancient Egypt, especially in the Delta and Mediterranean-connected lakes, and it played a role both in diet and in ritual economy. The mullet (family Mugilidae) is a migratory fish that moves between the Mediterranean and the brackish Delta lagoons (such as ancient Lake Mareotis and Lake Manzala). Its life cycle meant Egyptians could catch it in great numbers during seasonal runs, making it a predictable and valuable food source.

Mullet was highly prized in antiquity, not only for its flesh but also for its roe (eggs). The roe was salted and pressed into a delicacy very similar to modern bottarga (a salted, dried fish roe still eaten around the Mediterranean today). Mullet bones and roe remains have been found in settlement excavations in the Delta, Faiyum, Amarna and of course, at workmen’s villages. Egyptians preserved mullet by salting, drying, and sometimes smoking, as mentioned by Herodotus who documented the Ancient Egyptian fish-curing practices (Histories 2.77), which would certainly have included mullet.

While tilapia and perch had symbolic associations with rebirth and sacred cults, mullet was more practical and economic in its significance. However, the very abundance of mullet during seasonal runs likely tied it symbolically to the Nile’s fertility and the bounty of the inundation. As mentioned, Greek and later Roman writers noticed Egyptian mullet, especially the salted roe, which became an export delicacy. In the Greco-Roman period, amphorae containing salted mullet and roe were traded widely and Egypt became known for this product across the Mediterranean.

Egyptian Diet

For the common and wealthy alike, tilapia, catfish, mullet, and perch provided a reliable daily protein. The Egyptians developed a wide range of methods to prepare their catch. Some fish were eaten fresh, roasted or boiled, while others were carefully preserved to ensure a year-round supply. Herodotus, visiting in the fifth century B.C., noted how fish were laid out in the sun to dry and eaten without further cooking, or cured in brine to keep for later. The roe of mullet was salted into a delicacy still known in Mediterranean cuisine today. Archaeological remains confirm these practices, including heaps of fish bones at workmen’s villages (even around the Giza Plataeu) and bundles of salted perch and tilapia.

Fish were rarely eaten alone. For most Egyptians, they were paired with barley bread and beer, the bedrock of the diet, and often accompanied by onions, leeks, garlic, beans, and lentils. Herbs such as coriander and dill may have been added for flavour, and cooking fat or oil was sometimes used to stew or roast fish. A worker’s ration might therefore consist of coarse bread, a jug of beer, and a portion of dried fish, whilst the nobility enjoyed fresh fish with vegetables and seasoning. The roe of mullet, carefully salted, was a prized delicacy for the more privileged. Priests, however, according to Herodotus, generally abstained from fish entirely, considering them ritually impure; “it is not permitted to [the priests] to taste of fish”.

From the humblest hut to the banqueting halls of the elite, and from the temple offering tables to the great markets of the Delta, fish remained at the heart of Egyptian life. They were not only a daily staple but a food that could be stored, traded, and even sanctified. From ancient tomb paintings to today’s bustling markets along the Nile, fish have endured as a defining element of Egyptian sustenance and identity, the living bounty of the river itself.

Spiritual Aspects of the Fish in Ancient Egypt

For the Egyptians, fish swam between two worlds, the Nile itself and the realm of mythos and ritual. At Esna (Latopolis) the Nile perch was sacred to Neith, worshipped and even mummified in large numbers. At Oxyrhynchus, the oxyrhynchus fish (Mormyrus) was revered, giving the town its Greek name. Elsewhere, fish were considered impure or destructive, especially those accused of devouring Osiris’ remains. This duality of being sacred and taboo is a hallmark of Egyptian religion, where the dual nature of a being is both respected and feared.

Among Egypt’s many fish, the Nile tilapia held particular symbolic weight. Tilapia brood their eggs in their mouths, and are often shown in art with young emerging. Egyptians saw this as a living image of regeneration and rebirth. Tilapia also appear near the solar barque in tomb paintings, linking them with the sun’s daily rebirth in the east. Amulets in the shape of tilapia have been found, carried as charms for fertility and renewal.

From the Late Period into the Greco-Roman age, Egyptians prepared mummified fish as offerings to the gods. At Esna, thousands of Nile perch mummies were dedicated to Neith. Some were single large fish, others bundles of juveniles or even packets of scales. Tilapia, oxyrhynchus fish, and even catfish appear among votive mummies. These were placed in temples much like mummified ibises or crocodiles, serving as perpetual offerings and as embodiments of the sacred animal itself.

Although an uncertain and much-debated point, Herodotus (Histories 2.37, c. 440 B.C.), writes plainly that “it is not permitted to [the priests] to taste of fish.” Priests avoided fish altogether, while ordinary Egyptians ate them widely except when a particular species was locally sacred. The idea that is seldom mentioned but worth talking about, is the claim tthat pharaohs never ate fish. This too, comes mainly from Herodotus’ account of priestly abstinence. It’s likely that pharaohs, as high priests, followed the same rules at least in sacred contexts, but there is no definitive evidence they universally avoided fish at all times.

Plutarch (On Isis and Osiris, c. A.D. 100) expands on this, and within his writings tells us that on the ninth day of the first month, priests burned fish in ritual fire. He also records myths in which certain fish (the lepídotos, phagrus, and Nile perch) consumed pieces of Osiris’ dismembered body. As a result, some nomes detested these fish as unclean, while in other nomes they were paradoxically venerated as protectors. This explains why priests may have abstained fish. These fish were bound up with myths of Osiris’ death and with local cult taboos. To remain ritually pure, priests excluded them from their diet. Whether this exlusion was all year around, a life time exclusion or for specific festivals and time frames of religious purpose is unknown.

While Greek writers such as Herodotus and Plutarch remain invaluable sources for understanding Egypt, their accounts are not the final word on the subject. They were outsiders observing Egypt in the very late stages of the Pharaonic age, long after many of its traditions had changed or declined. Their writings, though vivid and often insightful, blend direct observation with hearsay, interpretation, and sometimes outright misunderstanding. Egyptologists today therefore treat them with respect, but also with caution.

Modern scholarship benefits from tools that the ancients could not have imagined: archaeological excavation, scientific analysis, and digital technologies that allow us to study human remains, organic matter, and artefacts in ways that reveal far more than ancient travellers could ever have known. Thus, while Herodotus and Plutarch offer us a precious window into how Egypt was seen in the classical world, their testimony is balanced against the far richer and more reliable evidence that comes directly from Egyptian texts, art, and archaeology.

Tools for Fishing

This relief above shows a man seated in a papyrus skiff, fishing in the Nile marshes with a four-pronged spear. Below the boat, the river teems with life: several species of fish are depicted, carefully carved to be recognisable, including Nile perch and tilapia.

Behind the fisherman, a large basket brims with the morning’s catch, suggesting both abundance and the provisioning of the household or tomb owner in the afterlife.

The four-pronged harpoon was a common fishing tool in Pharaonic Egypt, especially in shallow water, where it could strike multiple fish at once. Yet this was only one part of the fisherman’s arsenal.

Large casting and drag nets were used in teams, either thrown from the bank or stretched between boats, and could bring in great hauls at once.

Wicker fish traps, conical in form, were set in the shallows, their funnel entrances allowing fish to enter but not escape.

Hooks and lines, sometimes attached to short rods and sometimes used by hand, offered another technique, with copper or bronze hooks surviving from tombs. Spear-fishing, shown here, was the most dramatic method and appears often in elite art, a display of skill and control over the marshes.

The relief, therefore, is not simply a record of one man at work but part of a larger story: fishing in ancient Egypt combined nets, harpoons, lines, and traps, each method suited to different waters and different fish.

For the Egyptians, these techniques ensured a plentiful supply of food in life, while their representation in tombs symbolised mastery over the untamed river and the eternal promise of provision in the afterlife.